Jonas Wallin

Background: Tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) is a serious vector-borne neurological disease in Europe, with a complex transmission cycle involving ticks of genus Ixodes, animal hosts, environmental and climatic determinants. Methods: We modelled annual Geocoded Swedish TBE case data for the period 2005–2023 as a log-Gaussian Cox process in relation to population, environmental and climate data, and wildlife citizen science reports at high spatial resolution. We used the computationally efficient Integrated Nested Laplace Approximation (INLA) and projected the future TBE incidence using fifteen regional climate models. Results: The covariates significantly associated with TBE incidence in Sweden, ranked based on predictive capacity, were mean temperature, population density, habitat richness, forest cover, precipitation, relative humidity and roe deer density. Specifically, mean temperature above 12° C degrees in the third quarter of the previous year, habitat richness, precipitation in the third quarter, and higher roe deer density were associated with increased TBE risk. The model performed well on testing data, excluded from model building, demonstrating high predictive accuracy in TBE-endemic areas compared to observed data. Our projections indicate TBE cases will increase by 69% under low emissions (RCP2.6) and 121% under high emissions (RCP8.5) by the 2090s, relative to 2014–2023. Conclusion: The TBE incidence is projected to rise substantially, even under lower emission scenarios. Our findings highlight the growing influence of climate change on TBE transmission in Sweden and provide actionable evidence to inform surveillance, vaccination strategies, and long-term public health planning. Citizen science initiatives and risk maps can help focus resources on areas most vulnerable to transmission. More broadly, the integration of climate models with high-resolution epidemiological data, offers a template for anticipating climate-sensitive vector-borne diseases. Proactive, evidence-based interventions are essential to mitigate the growing health burden posed by TBE in Sweden and beyond.